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Takes time and implies careful attention looking below the surface to find the motivation and context as well as what assumptions are involved and what is not there. Criticism: A close analysis of a text resulting in evaluation. O A close analysis and judgment of something Not always negative, you can evaluate a text and be positive. Illnesses both positive negative or even neutral feedback o Not Just taking something at face value, you're talking critically o Looking innate the surface Critical Questions you might ask. What are the implicit and explicit assumptions in this article and are they reasonable? How reliable is the source of this argument bias/who is the source What's the purpose of this argument/ goal/ consequences? Why is this argument being made? What context or motives might have prompted it?Barnett and Bedaubs Components of Critical thinking Imagination Analysis Evaluation Examples that require critical thinking Riddles Argument A course of reasoning Making a case in favor or against something A critical claim with support and reasoning Example mastery Text Any sort of artifact that can be studied for Information Speech Essay novels Movies, TV shows, songs, press release, corporate annual report Anything that uses communication to get their point across. A one sentence summary of your argument.Will make a claim about the text you're looking at, it should take a position and then it should provide reasoning for that position. Summarizes your overall argument with both your position and reasoning. Rhetoric The strategic use of symbols to persuade o But it doesn't always have to be to persuade, it can be used to teach o Doesn't eve to be words it can be pictures Rhetoric is the argument People that use rhetoric o Advertisement o Politicians Finding the available means of persuasion in a given equation. Aristotle definition)Most important thing to remember while editing o USE A DICTIONARY Media criticism How they portray certain parts of society I. G How they portray movies Criticism of the news and media The way that system constitutes what we consider to be news 3 questions Where does news come from? Who decides what you see/hear/read? What are the functions of fact and opinion 2 classic studies 1. Warren Breed 1995 â€Å"Social control in the newsroom† a. . News is produced by reporters . Reporters are directed/influenced by . Editors Newspaper policy 2. Other reporters 3. Reporters learn from by osmosis iii. They read how other reporters write They are steered by Editor preferences b. The desire it see their stories be â€Å"news† c. And the desire to succeed.Sacred Cow Comes from the religion Hinduism o They hold cows sacred News media are often hesitant in publishing anything that will portray any person that is well-liked in the community or support the newspaper/media financially in a negative way. O Local figure 0 Joe Property 2. David Manning White, 1950 a. The â€Å"Gate Keeper† study I. There a re a series of â€Å"gate keepers† 1. Main source of control of what ends up being reported and what doesn't end up eyeing reported it. Each has the power to define what is or isn't news iii. If the gate keeper rejects a â€Å"story, â€Å"the work of all those who preceded him in reporting and transmitting the story is negated† ‘v. Decisions are 1. Highly subjective 2.Based on experiences, attitudes, expectations of gate keeper Facts vs.. Opinion in the news Opinion writing in the newspaper o Editorials 0 Official statements of the news paper Responses from of the reader. Columns/opinions/ Pieces/pop-De Essays gathered from other media outlets or the public Do not reflect the opinion of the newspapers outside opinions Front page news part 3 Rhetoric Plato Allegory of the Cave Fact represents an extended metaphor that is to contrast the way in which we perceive and believe in what is reality. The thesis behind his allegory is the basic tenets that all we perceiv e are imperfect â€Å"reflections† of the ultimate Forms, which subsequently represent truth and reality.The Matrix o The movie suggest that if people were given the choice they would choose to know the truth o Shallowness of Rhetoric Slogan We poked you in 84 will poke you again in 86 o Plato had a problem with this since it lacked knowledge Dialectic: Discussion or debate, the way that Aristotle wrote Georgia Difference Among Gorgons, Aristotle, and Plato: Plato was Aristotle teacher and firmly disbelieved in rhetoric and hated calling it a sham and cookery while Aristotle had a better understanding of rhetoric and wrote the most important book over it. Georgia was a sophist and a teacher of rhetoric whom Plato wrote about in order to make him sound stupid. O Socrates gets Georgia to admit that there are two types of persuasion Knowledge (convoy some type of knowledge) 0 Belief without knowledge Scarcities gets Georgia to admit rhetoric is belief without knowledge

Meaning of life †United Kingdom Essay

1. How does Pontiac understand the meaning of freedom? In his notion freedom meant getting rid of the English who had conquered the French and had gained more control over the Indians lands than ever. He believed they had to fight the English and pushed them out of their ancestors lands. As he said â€Å"Although you have conquered the French, you have not yet conquered us! We are not your slaves. These lake, these woods and mountains, were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance; and we will part with them to none. 2. What elements of Indian life does Neolin criticize most strongly? He criticized Pontiac for using European technology, doing fur trade with the Whites, using their cloths and consuming alcohol instead of fighting against the English which he called them â€Å"the dogs who dressed red† and surrendering himself to them. He argued that he (Pontiac) should clothe himself in skins and use the bows and arrows and his tradition to fight back against their enemies. 3. How does this document relate to and inform the related part of the Chapter in the main text? This document discusses on how Pontiac started his journey to meet with Delaware religious prophet Neolin and on how Neolin guided Pontiac on how he should fight back in opposed to the English by getting back to his tradition that he inherited from his ancestors. 4. What impact did the primary source had on your understanding and beliefs? It was very interesting to see how much Indians cared about spiritual beliefs and how strong their viewpoint were when it comes to their traditional faith. Even though, the English had believed they were faithless and savages, but the truth was they were full of spiritual thoughts.

'Short and harsh'. Is this a fair description of life for the majority Essay

'Short and harsh'. Is this a fair description of life for the majority of 'ordinary' rural Scots between 1300 and 1500 - Essay Example It was essentially a pandemic which had severe social and drastic economic consequences therefore a discussion of these effects becomes very important when we are dealing with the social issues of the time. The Plague came to Europe from the East through trade routes that had ships which carried the Bubonic Plague. It hit Europe during an economic recession and only caused the economy to go down further (Bolton, 1970). Anyone struck with the plague would be dead within three to five days and some towns lost as much as 90% of their population within a matter of months. The rural areas were also affected by the plague even though the extent of the disease was comparatively lower. It was indeed a horrible experience as major European cities such as Venice and Pisa lost more than 70% of their population. Modern estimates show us that 25 million people died in Europe within a period of just five years between 1347 and 1352. The reaction to so many people dying at once was naturally one of fear and hatred. Fear of the wrath of god which started the Flagellant Movement and the fear of the outsider such as Jews who were blamed for having caused the plague. Artists also created works of art to deal with the huge number of dead and dying they saw around them and saints were made of individuals such as St. Roch and St. Sebastian who took it upon themselves to help the sick in those times. While Scotland was already in trouble before the plague, the coming of the plague only made matters worse (Hale et. al., 1965). The agricultural system in particular suffered greatly since the output was not high enough during those years to create food surpluses. In this manner, the plague only lowered the standard of living for many Scots. The church which was present in Scotland and across Europe was simply unable to deal with the disease and

Source Annotation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Source Annotation - Essay Example He also concludes that Americans are feeling an economy strain because of this. The quality of the source is credible considering that other scholars on the topic reaffirm the author’s sentiments. For instance, Himmelstein verifies the fact that medical bills are expensive, which has pushed people to file for bankruptcy. This proves the credibility of the source. I agree with points formulated by the author as the source fits into my argument because the Zuckerman also celebrates the fact that America has experienced an increase in the medical expenditure, a sentiment that has been shared by other scholars. This is due to the fact that the government has increased its resources towards achieving a better healthcare plane for its citizens. This positively influences the life of the Americans by cutting down all healthcare policies. I tentatively disagree with the fact that the prices of health have increased bankruptcy levels since the government of America has developed healthcare policies for its citizens. I therefore rule out chances that the American citizens are bankrupt and cannot afford to cater for their healthcare

Video Critique on the play Oklahoma Movie Review

Video Critique on the play Oklahoma - Movie Review Example Herein lies one of the first of several problems with the 1999 production: the stage space did not allow for the robust participation of the supporting cast as is seen in the 1955 film production. In the production’s premiere theme song, Oklahoma, the on-stage cast, except Jackman and his bride, played by Josephina Gabrielle, remain seated at the wedding dinner table, smiling, but otherwise uninvolved physically and emotionally, until the end of the number. Not much can be said for the cast’s emotional expression while they are chair singing, raising cups without much enthusiasm. When they finally rise and join in, it is a flat effect on the viewer because there continues to be a lack of physical interaction with the song. Jackman’s voice is flawless when he sings this theme song, and he radiates in his performance. Unfortunately, his radiance was not contagious among his partner, Gabrielle, or the rest of the cast. This is a failure in Nunn’s direction. O ther song scenes, like I Can’t Say No, have the same brilliance of voice, but not in the performance of the actors. It is as if the cast was unaware of the sense of pride-in-state, and without a sense of the American west in their performance. There were dialogue scenes that were of a high caliber, but this is a musical, and the musical scenes are vital to the overall production, and the performances were sorely lacking.

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Leadership - Essay Example A Panic or Choke Moment My panic or choke moment is from a job scenario. It happened during a meeting in my workplace where I was supposed to give a presentation regarding a new project that our company wanted to initiate. That day turned out to be the most provoking and infuriating of my life. Before that time, I had experienced something similar, but this incident was more pronounced and baffling. The meeting was to take at least one hour since I was the only one presenting the project. I wanted to give a perfect presentation so I had to prepare adequately since my first presentation within my department had inadequacies and pitfalls. I had clearly mastered the whole presentation in my mind, but to ensure a sophisticated presentation, I brought along my laptop and projector. The meeting commenced, my boss did the introduction and thereafter called me to take the centre stage. I took centre stage, got ready by setting up my laptop and projector. I was so motivated and enthusiastic s ince I was sure that I had everything under control. However, five minutes into the presentation, a power surge occurred, which tampered with my laptop. The laptop failed to work; I realized that I could not access my presentation from the laptop, suddenly my mine went blank. Although, I had all the information in my mind, without my laptop, I could do nothing. Contending with the Situation After that incident, I resolved to get help in order to avoid an embarrassment like that again. Choking or panicking can be resolved through different methods. When Novotna faltered during her Wimbledon match, it was because she started to think too much about her shots, and thus, losing her fluidity. In my situation, when the power surge occurred, it tampered with my laptop, which had my presentation. I had put all my focus in presenting with the help of my laptop and projector. All I had to do was to give the presentation from my mind instead of thinking that using the laptop was the only in wh ich I possibly present. If I had relied on my mind, I would have easily avoided the stress and presented the project. Forgetting the past is very important, especially forgetting unpleasant incidences. Novotna, remembering her choke at Wimbledon was again culpable at the French Open in 1995. Forgetting disappointments in the past can help to avoid those affecting current events. Finally, it is important not to think too hard. Failure develops when an individual focuses too much on mechanical and technical procedures when carrying out an activity. As in my case, I focused too much on delivering a sophisticated presentation with my laptop and projector. In addition, contending with situations that bring about stress call for experience. Essentially, it means thinking something through with the objective of anticipating what might go wrong. Understanding Stress Reactions Understanding how a person reacts to stress is vital in making that person an effective leader. Emotional intelligen ce refers to the ability to comprehend and manage one’s emotions and of those around them (Vidula et al, 2012: p10). Leaders or team members who have good emotional intelligence normally know their feelings, what it means, and the manner in which this can affect the rest of the team. For a leader, being aware of one’s emotions is vital for success. A leader, who shouts at

Future of Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Future of Healthcare - Essay Example untries such as the United States have established public health care as an intervention to manage and control illnesses, injuries and other health disorders through disease surveillance, and encouragement of health behavior, environment and the society. It was intended to improve the accessibility of health services through private and public insurance health care provision to all Americans (AcademyHealth, 2011). Although introduction of Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2010 has addressed various challenges facing the health sector the reform has its share of challenges, risks, and opportunities for the people and the state. The drive to increase government involvement in health care administration in the United Stated State can be traced in 1912 following the presidential candidate on the Progressive Party ticket Theodore Roosevelt call for creation of a national health insurance scheme to replicate that of Germany (Emanuel, 2014). After the Great Depression, the proposal gained attention in 1932 when Wilbur Commission, a governmental panel observed that millions of American residents lacked access to affordable medical cover (AcademyHealth, 2011). They suggested a medical group practices and prepayment scheme where the group would contribute finances to cover the members. The intention was to provide every American with medical cover. However, the system experienced myriad challenges partly because of inadequate funds the state was facing and partly because the American Medical Association (AMA) failed to endorse government-run healthcare. These led to the failure of legislation to support the proposa l. Another attempt to provide a ten-year health care for all Americans was put across by President Harry Truman in 1945. However, the effort was thwarted by AMAs warning of the detriment of socializing medical care and subsequent opposition by the Congress (Brill, 2015). However, these proposals set the ground for subsequent political debates to

Quality of Food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Quality of Food - Essay Example Similarly when it comes to food products, customers normally prefer the quality of food and its taste. As the world is growing, people are demanding more and more changes in their living, eating and dressing habits. They are demanding not only for the low cost items but also demand to purchase a good quality product. When it comes to food products, consumers show a more sensitive attitude to buy a reputable product. The reputation of a food product is based on the quality and safety of the product. The reputation of a food product is mainly set up by the highest customer satisfaction and positive attitude towards the product. As found by Dickinson, Hobbs and Bailey that consumers of food products are willing to pay even more than the normal price only if they are assured that the food has passed the normal quality attributes. This paper would further explain the role of quality assurance in achieving the highest customer satisfaction and confidence in the food industry. Quality of a product depends on a number of factors like the selection of unprocessed material, processing techniques, packaging, techniques of storing material, security of sensitive products etc. All these factors may have a great positive or negative affect on the quality of the final product. Quality can be defined as a certain factor which exposes the degree of superiority of a product. The word quality has a greater role to play when it comes to food. Quality of food is dependent upon the phases that the food passes from and if or not the food is desirable to eat after passing through the different stages. ' Quality assurance is the concept which denies the concept that a good final product can be produced by a low-quality or poor raw material. In the food industry, it is believed that effective procedures must be used and carefully practiced to preserve the actual quality of the raw material. In simple words, it implies that useful procedures may help in saving time and reduce the normal losses (for example, Material wastage while transferring it from one process to another), however, no effective processing may improve the quality of raw material and hence of the final product. Quality assurance is necessary for the thriving progress of business and its goodwill. In order to make their distinguishable standard in the food industry, owners are required to maintain a constant standard of their products. Quality control bears importance as its aim is not just to produce a product which achieves the standards of quality which is already available in the market but also to maintain that quality in each piece of its product. Quality assurance sets its standards and then promises the customers to maintain and develop it throughout its business life (2). The point to ponder is that in the food industry the major step, to control the quality of food, can only be taken before putting the raw material in its first process. Once the raw material is added to the process it becomes difficult and almost impossible improve its quality. Quality assurance requires proper quality check from the very beginning of the production process. Without quality inspections at several stages it is impossible to assure the quality even after using the best possible way to reduce the cost price. Quality is

Revising for Unity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Revising for Unity - Assignment Example The best way to do this is to make bullies aware of their aggressive actions, and the pain the actions cause on their peers. In addition, victims should also be encouraged and made aware that change can always happen. 2) Change in the bullying culture can be spearheaded by all of us. Even fourth graders can do it. Parents too can take part in effecting this change. We can all partner and promote campaigns against bullying. These campaigns can allow kids and even adults who have once undergone bullying in their lives or are undergoing bullying to tell their stories so as to create awareness to everyone on the damaging effects of bullying, thus encourage them into taking action against this act. Young people can also hold meet ups and discuss the impact of bullying, as well as create more solutions to bullying. 3) The solution to bullying is a community wide thing. In fact, blaming bullies or being on their necks is not the way out of this problem. The society needs to be one; it needs to be a united agent of change if society is going to change. I understand that bullying is traumatizing from my personal experience, and I took it upon me to spread the word to parents and other students, who would help intervene and stop bullying in schools. I am part of the agents of change. The essay aims at sensitizing people on the harmful effect of bullying. In America, Bullying is a rampant problem in schools and thus it needs to be taken seriously. The effects of bullying in most instances are detrimental to the development of the victim. Usually, after experiencing bullying, the victim’s self-esteem tends to diminish greatly. As such, I want my readers to understand and learn that bullying is a serious vice which should be discouraged and eliminated from the American school system since it leaves the victim (like me) scarred both emotionally, psychologically and physically for life. Each of the paragraph sentences relate to the paragraph’s

The Economics of Women Men and Work Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The Economics of Women Men and Work - Assignment Example Men labored in the fields, traded, or worked at other jobs in order to bring his earnings home to his wife. The wife then made what was given last. Whether it was gold, bread, or other goods, the wife had to manage it. The wife also made clothes, soap, and other daily essentials. Children were expected to do chores. Cows produced milk, eggs were laid by hens, and other essentials chores were expected from the children. Everyone contributed to the economics of this household. Feminism and Marxism revolutionized the economics of the family. Whereas in the neoclassical family the man held all the power, women started gaining power in the 21st century. Today two working parents are common. What has become even more commonplace is a single family home. Mothers that get child support, or most of the time do not receive child support, are raising children. Divorce has given women a bargaining chip but has created a hardship on the single mothers. Domestic violence has decreased due to divorce, but the divorce rate has risen to nearly a 50/50 percent ratio. Another economic concern is childcare and housework. When women work out, or both parents work out, childcare must be considered. School-aged children must have a care before and after school if a parent has a 9 to 5 job. A nanny might be required for parents working unusual hours like the graveyard shift. Parents might choose to work opposite shifts in order to watch the children. Housework might have to be paid for as well. If two parents, or a single parent, is working too many hours a housekeeper might be necessary. It all plays into the economics of the family. Chapter Four discusses the balance between home and the labor force. The number of hours to work in order to make a living to the women’s attachment to the workforce was looked at. Economically the labor force must balance both work and home.

The Heart of a Teacher Essay Example for Free

The Heart of a Teacher Essay As I leaned on my headboard, I found myself heading towards the enjoyment of reading this article about how the real teacher teaches with his/her heart in the classroom. And so I started reflecting on what kind of a teacher I am. Teaching at first has not come in my wildest dream but since the family whom I came from cannot afford to send me to exclusive schools or well-known universities where I can pursue my career (fine arts which I wish to pursue), there’s no way out but to take up the course of education. I fear the fact of entering this path because in the first place, it’s not my first choice and it’s none of my choices. I think I had only the nerve to enroll since my mom is also a teacher. It was funny to recall when my professor in the graduate school, Dr. Irapta, asked who among us had experienced role playing as a teacher at home during our childhood, pretending that it was a real classroom scenario. I wasn’t sure how would I answer that question since the real thing is that I hadn’t. But years went on and I started and learned to love what teaching has to offer me. And I think that I already possess what this article is trying to imply, the heart of a teacher. With this, I do agree with the statement that quotes â€Å"We became teachers for reasons of the heart, animated by a passion for some subject and for helping people to learn. † It is very evident on us who consider teaching as a vocation wherein we put our heart not only to the occupation itself but to the student-learners and the subject as well. Sometimes we’re carried by the fact that we create harmonious relationship with this community of teachers, students and subject. We’re driven by some objectives, not only for the salary but our mission and passion to help the innocent ones to get them out of their shells and discover the reality of unbelievable ideas and concepts in this world. But, we cannot deny the fact that many of us lose heart as the years of teaching go by for so many reasons. The question becomes: How can we develop and sustain, in ourselves and each other, the heart for good teaching? Good teaching requires courage – the courage to explore one’s ignorance as well as insight, to yield some control in order to empower the group, to evoke other people’s lives as well as reveal one’s own. This means overcoming fears that block good teaching and learning. When our fears as teachers mingle and multiply with the fears inside our students, teaching and learning become mechanical, manipulative, and lifeless. Some tend to be distracted with the external forces around them; some were disillusioned with the factors and techniques for reclaiming their hearts and for keeping each heart open. When we lose our heart, we need an understanding of our condition that will liberate us from this condition. We need to keep our hearts open to students so that we can make teacher and students and subjects be interwoven into the fabric of community that learning and living require. We, teachers must try to connect ourselves, as well as our subjects to students so that we can create good rapport and learning environment. There must be an inner dialogue of reflection. â€Å"Seldom, I ask the â€Å"who† question–who is the self that teaches? How does the quality of my selfhood form–or deform–the way I relate to my students, my subject, my colleagues, and my world? How can educational institutions sustain and deepen the selfhood from which good teaching comes? † In relation to this, we need to recover the heart to teach by reclaiming our relationship with the teacher within. Listening to the voice within is somewhat easy to do and in fact, helped me to simply reflect on what I have done in a day’s work. The same thing as putting my heart while reading this article and finding solitude and silence just to cope up with the question in me, â€Å"How can I develop the capacity to stand my ground in the midst of the complex forces of both the classroom and my own life? † We must reclaim our relationship with the teacher within. A teacher who invites me to honor my true self-not my ego or expectations or image or role, but the self I am. The voice of the inward teacher reminds me of my potentials and limits as I negotiate the force field of my life. What we teach will never â€Å"take† unless it connects with the inward, living core of our students’ lives, with our students’ inward teachers. We can only speak to the teacher within our students when we are speaking with the teacher within ourselves. How does one attend to the voice of the teacher within? Some particular methods are solitude and silence; meditative reading and walking in the woods, keeping a journal, finding a friend who will simply listen. I merely propose that we need to learn as many ways as we can of â€Å"talking to ourselves. † However, conversation with my peers feels like being at ease, trusted and able to trust and above all, it helps me cultivate a sense of identity and integrity that allows me to feel at home wherever I am. I experienced sometime in my own teaching when I lose touch with my inner teacher and my own authority. During those times, I tried to regain it by wielding the threat of grades but when the voice within authorized me to teach, authority comes as I reclaim my identity and integrity, as I remember my selfhood and my sense of vocation. When the teachers struggle to survive from losing their heart, I guess it would also be practical to have some fun and techniques that ordinary teachers can use in everyday class. The same thing with my experience, I use different techniques, much practical techniques, such as motivating the students and getting their attention to focus on the subject, which will result to staying alive of the students inside the classroom. It is also a daily scenario in our faculty room where they argue about what to do with the students. Some questions their own limits and potentials when it comes to dealing with the relation between the subject and students’ lives. I won’t forget when my co-teacher told me how he was envious about my strategies and techniques on classroom management and on my way of teaching; how do I make my class in order and teach with my heart while during his class with the same set of students, he fails to control the discipline and fails to earn full respect of the whole class which must be evident on their way of interaction. While listening to his clamors, I was thinking of the best techniques I could offer him, but, to my surprise, it came to the point that he was planning to quit teaching. I don’t know why he had that thought of giving up until I read this article. I realized that he has lost his heart and he must be able to understand his condition so that he can avoid himself from truly losing it and recover from it instead. This teacher must talk with the teacher within him and find out how to overcome this condition. As I go on reading the article, I found the statement that says, â€Å"The institutions in which they work are the heart’s worst enemy,† which is indeed correct. Some leaders operate with a deep, unexamined insecurity about their own identity. These leaders create institutional settings which deprive others of their identity as a way of dealing with the unexamined fears in the leaders themselves. Institutions continually try to diminish the human heart to consolidate their own power, then, the individual self of a teacher is left with a discouraging choice. In the end, the teacher will be distant from the institution or will maintain external vigilance against institutional invasion. Teachers have leadership capabilities waiting to be unlocked and engaged for the good of the schools. But if the teachers in some schools or institutions will not be given chance to grow not only professionally but also inwardly, there’s a tendency that the teacher might withdraw from teaching. The question is, â€Å"how can the institution educate students if they fail to support the teachers’ inner life? † We must create enough spaces and trusting relationships within the teachers’ workplace. With this, we may be given opportunities to grow inwardly as teachers and we can be able to tell our own struggles and joys as teachers so that healing can happen within us – not only for our sake but our teaching and students as well. With this, we can bring back our hearts to teaching and reclaim our identity and integrity in teaching.

Act Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Act Utilitarianism Essay Utilitarianism is a theory in normative ethics holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes overall happiness. It is now generally taken to be a form of consequentialism, although when Anscombe first introduced that term it was to distinguish between old-fashioned Utilitarianism and consequentialism. [1] According to utilitarianism the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome although there is debate over how much consideration should be given to actual consequences, foreseen consequences and intended consequences. Two influential contributors to this theory are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. In A Fragment on Government Bentham says ‘it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong’ and describes this as a fundamental axiom. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation he talks of ‘the principle of utility’ but later prefers â€Å"the greatest happiness principle. [2][3] Utilitarianism can be characterized as a quantitative and reductionist approach to ethics. It is a type of naturalism. [4] It can be contrasted with deontological ethics,[5] which does not regard the consequences of an act as a determinant of its moral worth; virtue ethics,[6] which primarily focuses on acts and habits leading to happiness; pragmatic ethics; as well as with ethical egoism and other varieties of consequentialism. [7] Utilitarianism has often been considered the natural ethic of a democracy operating by simple majority without protection of individual rights. [8] Early utilitarianism The importance of happiness as an end for humans has long been recognized. Forms of hedonism were put forward by Aristippus and Epicurus; Aristotle argued that eudaimonia is the highest human good and Augustine wrote that all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness. Happiness was also explored in depth by Aquinas[9][10][11][12][13] However, utilitarianism as a distinct ethical position only emerged in the eighteenth century. Although utilitarianism is usually thought to start with Jeremy Bentham there were earlier writers who presented theories that were strikingly similar. In An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals David Hume writes: In all determinations of morality, this circumstance of public utility is ever principally in view; and wherever disputes arise, either in philosophy or common life, concerning the bounds of duty, the question cannot, by any means, be decided with greater certainty, than by ascertaining, on any side, the true interests of mankind. [14] Hume had studied under Francis Hutcheson and it was he who first introduced a key utilitarian phrase. In An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725) Hutcheson writes, In comparing the moral qualitys of actions, in order to regulate our election among various actions proposed, or to find which of them has the greatest moral excellency, we are led by our moral sense of virtue to judge thus; that in equal degrees of happiness, expected to proceed from the action, the virtue is in proportion to the number of persons to whom the happiness shall extend (and here the dignity, or moral importance of persons, may compensate numbers); And in equal numbers, the virtue is as the quantity of the happiness, or natural good; or that the virtue is in a compound ratio of the quantity of good, and number of enjoyers. In the same manner, the moral evil, or vice, is as the degree of misery, and number of sufferers; so that, that action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers; and that, worst, which, in like manner, occasions misery. [15]. In the first three editions of the book Hutcheson followed this passage with various mathematical algorithms â€Å"to compute the Morality of any Actions†. In this he pre-figured the hedonic calculus of Bentham. It is claimed[16] that the first systematic theory of utilitarian ethics was developed by John Gay. In Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality (1731) Gay argues that. Utilitarianism â€Å"happiness, private happiness, is the proper or ultimate end of all our actions†¦ each particular action may be said to have its proper and peculiar end†¦(but)†¦. they still tend or ought to tend to something farther; as is evident from hence, viz. that a man may ask and expect a reason why either of them are pursued: now to ask the reason of any action or pursuit, is only to enquire into the end of it: but to expect a reason, i. e. an end, to be assigned for an ultimate end, is absurd. To ask why I pursue happiness, will admit of no other answer than an explanation of the terms. †[17] This pursuit of happiness is given a theological basis: â€Å"Now it is evident from the nature of God, viz.his being infinitely happy in himself from all eternity, and from his goodness manifested in his works, that he could have no other design in creating mankind than their happiness; and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore the means of their happiness: therefore that my behaviour, as far as it may be a means of the happiness of mankind, should be such†¦thus the will of God is the immediate criterion of Virtue, and the happiness of mankind the criterion of the wilt of God; and therefore the happiness of mankind may be said to be the criterion of virtue, but once removed†¦(and)†¦ I am to do whatever lies in my power towards promoting the happiness of mankind. [18] Gay’s theological utilitarianism was developed and popularized by William Paley. It has been claimed that Paley was not a very original thinker and that the philosophical part of his treatise on ethics is â€Å"an assemblage of ideas developed by others and is presented to be learned by students rather than debated by colleagues. †[19] Nevertheless, his book The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785) was a required text at Cambridge[19] and Smith says that Paley’s writings were â€Å"once as well known in American colleges as were the readers and spellers of William McGuffey and Noah Webster in the elementary schools. †[20] Although now largely missing from the philosophical canon, Schneewind writes that utilitarianism first became widely known in England through the work of William Paley. [21] The now forgotten significance of Paley can be judged from the title of Birks 1874 work Modern Utilitarianism or the Systems of Paley, Bentham and Mill Examined and Compared. Apart from restating that happiness as an end is grounded in the nature of God, Paley also discusses the place of rules. He writes, â€Å"†¦actions are to be estimated by their tendency. Whatever is expedient, is right. It is the utility of any moral rule alone, which constitutes the obligation of it. Modern Utilitarianism by T. R. Birks 1874 2 But to all this there seems a plain objection, viz. that many actions are useful, which no man in his senses will allow to be right. There are occasions, in which the hand of the assassin would be very useful†¦ The true answer is this; that these actions, after all, are not useful, and for that reason, and that alone, are not right. To see this point perfectly, it must be observed that the bad consequences of actions are twofold, particular and general. The particular bad consequence of an action, is the mischief which that single action directly and immediately occasions. The general bad consequence is, the violation of some necessary or useful general rule†¦ You cannot permit one action and forbid another, without showing a difference between them. Consequently, the same sort of actions must be generally permitted or generally forbidden. Where, Utilitarianism therefore, the general permission of them would be pernicious, it becomes necessary to lay down and support the rule which generally forbids them. †[22] 3 Classical utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham Benthams book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was printed in 1780 but not published until 1789. It is possible that Bentham was spurred on to publish after he saw the success of Paley’s The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. [23] Benthams book was not an immediate success[24] but his ideas were spread further when Pierre Etienne Louis Dumont translated edited selections from a variety of Benthams manuscripts into French. Traite de legislation civile et penale was published in 1802 and then later retranslated back into English by Hildreth as The Theory of Legislation, although by this time significant portions of Dumont’s work had already been retranslated and incorporated into Sir John Bowrings edition of Benthams works, which was issued in parts between 1838 and 1843. Benthams work opens with a statement of the principle of utility, â€Å"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do†¦ By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a private individual, but of every measure of government. †[25] In Chapter IV Bentham introduces a method of calculating the value of pleasures and pains, which has come to be known as the hedonic calculus. Bentham says that the value of a pleasure or pain, considered by itself, can be measured according to its intensity, duration, certainty/uncertainty and propinquity/remoteness. In addition, it is necessary to consider â€Å"the tendency of any act by which it is produced† and, therefore, to take account of the act’s fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by sensations of the same kind and its purity, or the chance it has of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind. Finally, it is necessary to consider the extent, or the number of people affected by the action. Perhaps aware that Hutcheson eventually removed his algorithms for calculating the greatest happiness because they â€Å"appear’d useless, and were disagreeable to some readers†[26] Bentham contends that there is nothing novel or unwarranted about his method for â€Å"in all this there is nothing but what the practice of mankind, wheresoever they have a clear view of their own interest, is perfectly conformable to. † Rosen warns that descriptions of utilitarianism can bear â€Å"little resemblance historically to utilitarians like Bentham and J. S. Mill† and can be more â€Å"a crude version of act utilitarianism conceived in the twentieth century as a straw man to be attacked and rejected. †[27] It is a mistake to think that Bentham is not concerned with rules. His seminal work is concerned with the principles of legislation and the hedonic calculus is introduced with the words â€Å"Pleasures then, and the avoidance of pains, are the ends that the legislator has in view. † In Chapter VII Bentham says, â€Å"The business of government is to promote the happiness of the society, by punishing and rewarding†¦ In proportion as an act tends to disturb that happiness, in proportion as the tendency of it is pernicious, will be the demand it creates for punishment. † The question then arises as to when, if at all, it might legitimate to break the law. This is considered in The Theory of Legislation where Bentham distinguishes between evils of the first and second orders. Those of the first order are the more immediate consequences; those of the second are when the consequences spread through the community causing ‘alarm’ and ‘danger’. Utilitarianism â€Å"It is true there are cases in which, if we confine ourselves to the effects of the first order, the good will have an incontestable preponderance over the evil. Were the offence considered only under this point of view, it would not be easy to assign any good reasons to justify the rigour of the laws. Every thing depends upon the evil of the second order; it is this which gives to such actions the character of crime, and which makes punishment necessary. Let us take, for example, the physical desire of satisfying hunger. Let a beggar, pressed by hunger, steal from a rich mans house a loaf, which perhaps saves him from starving, can it be possible to compare the good which the thief acquires for himself, with the evil which the rich man suffers? †¦ It is not on account of the evil of the first order that it is necessary to erect these actions into offences, but on account of the evil of the second order. †[28] 4 John Stuart Mill Mill was brought up as a Benthamite with the explicit intention that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism. [29] Mills book Utilitarianism first appeared as a series of three articles published in Frasers Magazine in 1861 and was reprinted as a single book in 1863. Higher and lower pleasures Mill rejects a purely quantitative measurement of utility and says, â€Å"It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognise the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. †[30] Mill notes that, contrary to what its critics might say, there is â€Å"no known Epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect†¦ a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. † However, he accepts that this is usually because the intellectual pleasures are thought to have circumstantial advantages, i. e. â€Å"greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, c. † Instead, Mill will argue that some pleasures are intrinsically better than others. The accusation that hedonism is â€Å"doctrine worthy only of swine† has a long history. In Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1 Chapter 5) Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts. The theological utilitarians had the option of grounding their pursuit of happiness in the will of God; the hedonistic utilitarians needed a different defense. Mill’s approach is to argue that the pleasures of the intellect are intrinsically superior to physical pleasures. Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beasts pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the fool, the dunce, or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they are with theirs†¦ A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, and is certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type; but in spite of these liabilities, he can never really wish to sink into what he feels to be a lower grade of existence†¦ It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question†¦ [31] Mill argues that if people who are â€Å"competently acquainted† with two pleasures show a decided preference for one even if it be accompanied by more discontent and â€Å"would not resign it for any quantity of the other† then it is legitimate to regard that pleasure as being superior in quality. Mill recognises that these ‘competent judges’ will not always agree, in which case the judgment of the majority is to be accepted as final. Mill also acknowledges that â€Å"many who are capable of the higher pleasures, occasionally, under the influence of temptation, postpone them to the Utilitarianism lower. But this is quite compatible with a full appreciation of the intrinsic superiority of the higher. † Mill says that this appeal to those who have experienced the relevant pleasures is no different to what must happen when assessing the quantity of pleasure for there is no other way of measuring â€Å"the acutest of two pains, or the intensest of two pleasurable sensations. † Mills proof of the principle of utility In Chapter Four of Utilitarianism Mill considers what proof can be given for the Principle of Utility. He says’ â€Å" The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it†¦ No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness†¦ we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good: that each persons happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons. †[32] It is usual[33] to say that Mill is committing a number of fallacies. He is accused of committing the naturalistic fallacy, because he is trying to deduce what people ought to do from what they do in fact do; the fallacy of equivocation, because he moves from the fact that something is desirable(1), i. e. is capable of being desired, to the claim that it is desirable(2), i. e.that it ought to be desired; and the fallacy of composition, because the fact that people desire their own happiness does not imply that the aggregate of all persons will desire the general happiness. Hall[34] and Popkin[35] defend Mill against this accusation pointing out that he begins Chapter Four by asserting that â€Å"that questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof, in the ordinary acceptation of the term† and that this is â€Å"common to all first principles. † According to Hall and Popkin, therefore, Mill does not attempt to â€Å"establish that what people do desire is desirable but merely attempts to make the principles acceptable. †[33] The type of â€Å"proof† Mill is offering consists only of some considerations which, Mill thought, might induce an honest and reasonable man to accept utilitarianism. [33] Having claimed that people do, in fact, desire happiness Mill now has to show that it is the only thing they desire. Mill anticipates the objection that people desire other things such as virtue. He argues that whilst people might start desiring virtue as a means to happiness, eventually, it becomes part of someone’s happiness and is then desired as an end in itself. The principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure, as music, for instance, or any given exemption from pain, as for example health, are to be looked upon as means to a collective something termed happiness, and to be desired on that account. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being means, they are a part of the end. Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so; and in those who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness. [36] 5 Utilitarianism 6 Twentieth century developments Ideal Utilitarianism The description Ideal Utilitarianism was first used by Hastings Rashdall in The Theory of Good and Evil (1907) but is more often associated with G. E. Moore. In Ethics (1912) Moore rejected a purely hedonistic utilitarianism and argued that there is a range of values that might be maximized. Moore’s strategy was to show that it is intuitively implausible that pleasure is the sole measure of what is good. He says that such an assumption, â€Å" involves our saying, for instance, that a world in which absolutely nothing except pleasure existed—no knowledge, no love, no enjoyment of beauty, no moral qualities—must yet be intrinsically better—better worth creating—provided only the total quantity of pleasure in it were the least bit greater, than one in which all these things existed as well as pleasure. † â€Å"It involves our saying that, even if the total quantity of pleasure in each was exactly equal, yet the fact that all the beings in the one possessed in addition knowledge of many different kinds and a full appreciation of all that was beautiful or worthy of love in their world, whereas none of the beings in the other possessed any of these things, would give us no reason whatever for preferring the former to the latter. †[37] Moore admits that it is impossible to prove the case either way but believed that it was intuitively obvious that even if the amount of pleasure stayed the same a world that contained such things as beauty and love would be a better world. He adds that if anybody took the contrary view then â€Å"I think it is self-evident that he would be wrong. †[37] Act and rule utilitarianism In the mid-twentieth century a number of philosophers focused on the place of rules in utilitarian thinking. [38] It was already accepted that it is necessary to use rules to help you choose the right action because the problems of calculating the consequences on each and every occasion would almost certainly result in you frequently choosing something less than the best course of action. Paley had justified the use of rules and Mill says, â€Å"It is truly a whimsical supposition that, if mankind were agreed in considering utility to be the test of morality, they would remain without any agreement as to what is useful, and would take no measures for having their notions on the subject taught to the young, and enforced by law and opinion†¦ to consider the rules of morality as improvable, is one thing; to pass over the intermediate generalisations entirely, and endeavour to test each individual action directly by the first principle, is another†¦ The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal†¦ Nobody argues that the art of navigation is not founded on astronomy, because sailors cannot wait to calculate the Nautical Almanack. Being rational creatures, they go to sea with it ready calculated; and all rational creatures go out upon the sea of life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. †[39] However, rule utilitarianism proposes a more central role for rules that was thought to rescue the theory from some of its more devastating criticisms, particularly problems to do with justice and promise keeping. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s articles were published both for and against the new form of utilitarianism and through this debate the theory we now call rule utilitarianism was created. In an introduction to an anthology of these articles the editor was able to say, â€Å"The development of this theory was a dialectical process of formulation, criticism, reply and reformulation; the record of this process well illustrates the co-operative development of a philosophical theory. †[40] Smart[41] and McCloskey[42] initially used the terms extreme and restricted utilitarianism but eventually everyone settled on the terms act and rule utilitarianism. The essential difference is in what determines whether or not an action is the right action. Act utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it maximises utility; rule utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it Utilitarianism conforms to a rule that maximises utility. In 1953 Urmson published an influential article[43] arguing that Mill justified rules on utilitarian principles. From then on articles have debated this interpretation of Mill. In all probability it was not a distinction that Mill was particularly trying to make and so the evidence in his writing is inevitably mixed. In 1977 a collection of Mill’s writing was published which included a letter in which he said: â€Å"I agree with you that the right way of testing actions by their consequences, is to test them by the natural consequences of the particular action, and not by those which would follow if everyone did the same. But, for the most part, the consideration of what would happen if everyone did the same, is the only means we have of discovering the tendency of the act in the particular case. †[44] This seems to tip the balance in favour of saying that Mill is best classified as an act utilitarian. Some school level textbooks and at least one UK examination board[45] make a further distinction between strong and weak rule utilitarianism. However, it is not clear that this distinction is made in the academic literature. It has been argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be refined by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception. [46] This process holds for all cases of exceptions, and so the ‘rules’ have as many ‘sub-rules’ as there are exceptional cases, which, in the end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome produces the maximum utility. [47] 7 Two-level Utilitarianism In Principles (1973)[48] R. M. Hare accepts that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism but claims that this is a result of allowing the rules to be as specific and un-general as we please. He argues that one of the main reasons for introducing rule utilitarianism was to do justice to the general rules that people need for moral education and character development and he proposes that â€Å"a difference between act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism can be introduced by limiting the specificity of the rules, i. e. , by increasing their generality. †[49] This distinction between a ‘specific rule utilitarianism’ (which collapses into act utilitarianism) and ‘general rule utilitarianism’ forms the basis of Hare’s two-level utilitarianism. When we are ‘playing God or the ideal observer’ we use the specific form and we will need to do this when we are deciding what general principles to teach and follow. When we are ‘inculcating’ or in situations where the biases of our human nature are likely to prevent us doing the calculations properly, then we should use the more general rule utilitarianism. Hare argues that in practice, most of the time, we should be following the general principles: â€Å"One ought to abide by the general principles whose general inculcation is for the best; harm is more likely to come, in actual moral situations, from questioning these rules than from sticking to them, unless the situations are very extra-ordinary; the results of sophisticated felicific calculations are not likely, human nature and human ignorance being what they are, to lead to the greatest utility. †[50] In Moral Thinking (1981) Hare illustrated the two extremes. The archangel is the hypothetical person who has perfect knowledge of the situation and no personal biases or weaknesses and always uses critical moral thinking to decide the right thing to do; the ‘prole’ is the hypothetical person who is completely incapable of critical thinking and uses nothing but intuitive moral thinking and, of necessity, has to follow the general moral rules they have been taught or learned through imitation. [51] It is not that some people are archangels and others proles but rather â€Å"we all share the characteristics of both to limited and varying degrees and at different times. †[51] Hare does not specify when we should think more like an archangel and more like a prole as this will, in any case, vary from person to person. However, the critical moral thinking underpins and informs the more intuitive moral thinking. It is responsible for formulating and, if necessary, reformulating the general moral rules. We also switch to critical thinking when trying to deal with unusual situations or in cases where the intuitive moral rules give Utilitarianism conflicting advice. 8 Preference utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism was first put forward in 1977 by John Harsanyi in Morality and the theory of rational behaviour[52] but it is more commonly associated with R. M. Hare,[51] Peter Singer[53] and Richard Brandt. [54] Harsanyi claimed that his theory is indebted to Adam Smith, who equated the moral point of view with that of an impartial but sympathetic observer; to Kant who insisted on the criterion of universality and which may also be described as a criterion of reciprocity; to the classical utilitarians who made maximising social utility the basic criterion of morality; and to ‘the modern theory of rational behaviour under risk and uncertainty, usually described as Bayesian decision theory’. [55] Harsanyi rejects hedonistic utilitarianism as being dependent on an outdated psychology saying that it is far from obvious that everything we do is motivated by a desire to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. He also rejects ideal utilitarianism because â€Å"it is certainly not true as an empirical observation that people’s only purpose in life is to have ‘mental states of intrinsic worth’. †[56] According to Harsanyi, â€Å"preference utilitarianism is the only form of utilitarianism consistent with the important philosophical principle of preference autonomy. By this I mean the principle that, in deciding what is good and what is bad for a given individual, the ultimate criterion can only be his own wants and his own preferences. †[57] Harsanyi adds two caveats. People sometimes have irrational preferences. To deal with this Harsanyi distinguishes between ‘manifest’ preferences and ‘true’ preferences. The former are those â€Å"manifested by his observed behaviour, including preferences possibly based on erroneous factual beliefs, or on careless logical analysis, or on strong emotions that at the moment greatly hinder rational choice† whereas the latter are â€Å"the preferences he would have if he had all the relevant factual information, always reasoned with the greatest possible care, and were in a state of mind most conducive to rational choice. †[57] It is the latter that preference utilitarianism tries to satisfy. The second caveat is that antisocial preferences such as sadism, envy and resentment have to be excluded. Harsanyi achieves this by claiming that such preferences partially exclude those people from the moral community. â€Å"Utilitarian ethics makes all of us members of the same moral community. A person displaying ill will toward others does remain a member of this community, but not with his whole personality. That part of his personality that harbours these hostile antisocial feelings must be excluded from membership, and has no claim for a hearing when it comes to defining our concept of social utility. †[58] More varieties of utilitarianism Negative utilitarianism In The Open Society and its Enemies (1945), Karl Popper argued that the principle maximize pleasure should be replaced by minimize pain. He thought â€Å"it is not only impossible but very dangerous to attempt to maximize the pleasure or the happiness of the people, since such an attempt must lead to totalitarianism. †[59] He claimed that, â€Å"there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure†¦ In my opinion human suffering makes a direct moral appeal, namely, the appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway. A further criticism of the Utilitarian formula ‘Maximize pleasure’ is that it assumes a continuous pleasure-pain scale which allows us to treat degrees of pain as negative degrees of pleasure. But, from the moral point of view, pain cannot be outweighed by pleasure, and especially not one man’s pain by another man’s pleasure. Instead of the greatest happiness for the greatest number, one should demand, more modestly, the least amount of avoidable suffering for all †[60] Utilitarianism The actual term Negative Utilitarianism was introduced by R. N. Smart as the title to his 1958 reply to Popper[61] in which he argued that the principle would entail seeking the quickest and least painful method of killing the entirety of humanity. â€Å"Suppose that a ruler controls a weapon capable of instantly and painlessly destroying the human race. Now it is empirically certain that there would be some suffering before all those alive on any proposed destruction day were to die in the natural course of events. Consequently the use of the weapon is bound to diminish suffering, and would be the rulers duty on NU grounds. †[62] Negative utilitarianism would seem to call.

Developing a Compensator using Cerrobend Materials

Developing a Compensator using Cerrobend Materials ABSTRACT In external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), dose optimization is achieved by conforming the dose distribution to the shape of the intended target whilst minimizing radiation to normal tissues in close proximity to the target. This is achieved by modulating the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. Compensators may be used to achieve the above effect and can be used to approximate the fluence map by appropriate linear attenuation coefficient of individual beamlets making up the original open beam fluence. This may be done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. This work describe the procedures for designing, constructing and dosimetric considerations of cerrobend compensator for high energy photon beams, using the bolus option on the surface of the phantom planned with Prowess Panther TPS. Also correc tion factors that account with effects of field size, treatment depth and changes in thickness ratio because of using bolus were introduced. The cerrobend compensator was adjusted to account for beam divergence and reduction in dose contributed by scattered radiation. The correction factors were applied to the thickness ratio for determination of appropriate thickness of cerrobend that mimic bolus. The measurements were done in Theratron Equinox 100 cobalt-60 teletherapy unit using Cerrobend slabs constructed to account for divergence of the beam for the maximum field size considered in this research (3030 cm2). The narrow and broad beam linear attenuation coefficient for cerrobend were determined using simple attenuation model, varying the field size from 44 cm2 to 3030 cm2 field sizes in air, and also varying the thickness of cerrobend from 0.5cm to 4.6cm. The value found was 0.4574cm-1 and also the field size dependence of linear attenuation coefficient were investigated. The sca tter produced by cerrobend was accessed and evaluated. The scatter-to-primary ratio dose contribution was found to be negligible for small field size as reported by Dimitriadis (2002), and can cause error in the final dose calculation up to 13.3% for 3030 cm2 and 4.09 cm thickness of cerrobend. The cerrobend compensator was successful designed and constructed. The dosimetric accuracy for constructed cerrobend compensator was found to be deviating with that predicted with Prowess Panther Treatment Planning System with percentage error ranging from 0.365 to 25%, which is associated with limitations in producing precise thickness of cerrobend with the same accuracy of that generated by the equation 3.04 and limitations in generating flat surface topography and also the presence of air bubble in the cerrobend compensator which was not investigated in thiswork. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Cancer is a significant health care problem. On average about half of all cancer patients are treated with radiation therapy worldwide (IAEA, 2004). Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, radiation oncology or therapeutic radiology is one of the three modalities used to treat malignant disease (cancer) the other two being chemotherapy and surgery (Suntharalingamn et al, 2005). Radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation to eradicate cancerous cells with the least possible damage to normal tissues. The first therapeutic use of ionizing radiation was demonstrated in 1897 by Wilhelm Alexander Freud, a German surgeon before Vienna Medical Society when he demonstrated the disappearance of a hairy mole following treatment with x-ray (Hall, 2000). The first recorded experiment in radiobiology was also performed by Becquerel when he advertently left a radium container in his vest pocket and subsequently described the skin erythema two weeks later (Hall, 2000). The modalities of radiotherapy are divided into two types, tele-therapy and brachytherapy. Brachytherapy is a method of treatment in which sealed sources are used to deliver radiation at short distances by interstitial, intracavitary or surface application (Khan, 2010). Tele-therapy is a treatment modality in which the source of radiation is at a distance from the patient, also called external beam radiation therapy, it uses photons ranging from kilo voltage to megavoltage photons, and electron beams from linear accelerators or Co-60 tele therapy units. In External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT), the methodology of treatment depends on different factors, which may include the shape and size of the tumour to be treated within the patient, sparing of normal tissues within the vicinity of the target from excessive irradiation, financial constraints and the quest of optimization of radiation dose to the target. There are different treatment techniques ranging from 2-D conventional radioth erapy to more advanced Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT). IMRT is a treatment planning and delivery technique that can greatly improve the process of conformal radiotherapy which refers to the process of blocking a beam with irregular shaped beam portal so that the dose delivered corresponds more closely to tumour whilst reducing the dose to normal tissue. In developing countries, most of the centrees are restricted to a Co-60 tele therapy unit with basic treatment planning and simulation capabilities. Patients present irregular surface topographies and tissue heterogeneities. According to Chang (2004), a compensator is a traditional tool for modern application and is an alternative IMRT delivery technique. In IMRT, the compensator is used not in the sense of compensating for missing tissue or tissue heterogeneity but as beam intensifier like dynamic wedges and multileaf collimators (MLC). The goal is to achieve dose uniformity throughout the whole target volume and, more importantly to spare critical structures according to the dose and dose volume constraint prescribed by the clinicians for specific patients (Jiango et al, 1998). Therefore, compensators are designed to produce an optimized primary fluency profile at the patient’s surface. This is achieved by modulating the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. There are various methods by which compensators can be made. According to Williams and Thwaites (2000), the three main types are grid-blocking system, contour system and a system using machined compensator. The first compensators made by Ellis et al. (1958) were constructed by stacking aluminum pillars. Another method reported by Lam et al. (1983) describes the construction of compensators from thin sheets of lead. Today compensators are more commonly made from molds filled with molten alloy or wax. Using molds is advantageous since it results in compensators with smoother surfaces and thus greater accuracy. To make a compensator for an IMRT practice, it is required to calculate the effective attenuation coefficient () of its materials, which is affected by various factors as field size, depth, off- axis distance, compensator thickness (Haghparast et al, 2013). A number of elements have been used to form compensators which include tungsten-epoxy mixture (Xu et al, 2002), Lucite (Khan et al, 1970), gypsum (Weeks et al, 1988), tin-wax (Van et al, 1995), tin (Chang et al, 2000), cerrobend (Waltz BJ et al, 1973), steel (Van et al, 1995), aluminum (Ellis et al, 1959), brass (Ellis et al, 1959; Tess, 2014), lead (Leung et al, 1974; Cunnighan et al, 1976; Andrew et al, 1982; Spicka et al, 1988), coper (Tess, 2014). In this study, a cerrobend compensator will be constructed using a simple attenuation model to determine its effective attenuation coefficient. Film and an ionization chamber will be used for dosimetric measurements and for verification of measured dose distribution and compared with those calculated with the PROWESS Panther TPS software at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. PROBLEM STATEMENT In external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), dose optimization is achieved by conforming the dose distribution to the shape of the intended target whilst minimizing radiation to normal tissues in close proximity to the target. Most dosimetric measurements are done on flat surface and homogenous medium, however patients surface is highly irregular and internal tissues are heterogeneous. The main aim of radiation therapy is to deliver uniform dose distribution within +7 % and –5 % (ICRU report 50, 1993) of the dose prescription without exceeding the tolerance dose of the critical structure around tumor volume. To achieve this goal, the above irregularities should be corrected. Thus different studies suggested and implemented bolus which is a tissue equivalent material placed at the surface of the patient to compensate the missing tissue. However, this technique doesnt spare the skin beneath the bolus. This is because, the buildup region is in the bolus and Dmax (depth of maximum dose) will be at skin surface. To solve such complications compensators have been introduced by different people on different approaches to correct both surface irregularity and tissue heterogeneity which is now done by using MLC based IMRT. Advanced technological innovations in anatomic and functional imaging modalities (CT, MRI, PET, and US) have led to improved visualization and the delineation of tumour. Radiation treatment planning and delivered techniques have also seen a marked improvement. Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) provides a high degree of dose conformity to the planning target volume (PTV) and the conformal avoidance of organs at risk. Therefore radiation field is not only geometrically shaped to conform to the outline of the planning target volume at the beams eye view, but is also intensity modulated. The National Centre for Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine of Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH) presently uses paraffin wax for construction of a compensator and cerrobend for shielding blocks, but there is a need to implement physical compensator based IMRT using materials which are available in the Centre and is inexpensive. This research will focus on design and construction and dosimetric considerations of cerrobend compensators to modulate the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. OBJECTIVES GENERAL OBJECTIVE The general objective of this work is designing and constructing a compensator using cerrobend materials. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES To clarify the effect of scattered photons generated within the compensator on head scatter factor. To evaluate dosimetric accuracy and dose coverage. To compare and evaluate measured and predicted data. To evaluate the variation of dose distribution by the compensator. SCOPE AND LIMITATION The scope of this thesis is in the area of the IMRT by means of physical compensators specifically using cerrobend which are manually fabricated. In most centres which are practicing IMRT, the construction of the compensator to provide the needed modulation is done by generating a fluency map of the radiation portal needed. This is done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. The bolus option will be used in this research as currently there is no TPS in the country that can do inverse planning. In this case, the cerrobend compensator will be used to replicate dosimetric effects of the bolus placed on the surface of the patient. According to Jiang et al (1998), the calculation of compensator thickness profile (an optimized primary fluency profile) is straightforward typically using the exponentially attenuation model. With reference to this, the shape of the compensator w ill be adjusted to account for beam divergence and reduction in dose contributed by scattered radiation. Thus the dosimetric considerations is part of the scope of this research. The measurement will be made from a Co-60 tele therapy machine at Korle Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH). RELEVANCE OF THE PROJECT WORK In radiation oncology, a patient should get the best treatment option as much as possible in order to improve quality of patient care. So the expected results such as correction factors to account for reduction in scatter for using the cerrobend compensator to mimic bolus would have immense contribution to scientific and technical knowledge. From this work, it will be possible to implement IMRT delivering technique at National Centre for Radiotherapy and Nuclear medicine of Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. The clinical implementation of IMRT technique requires at least two systems (Khan, 2010), which are: treatment planning computer system that can calculate non-uniform fluence maps for multiple beams directed from different directions to maximize dose to target while minimizing dose to critical normal structures. This may be done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. The s econd one, is a system delivering a non-uniform fluence as planned, so each of these systems must be appropriately tested and commissioned before the actual clinical use. The bolus option will be used in this research as currently there is no TPS in the country that can do inverse planning. The cerrobend compensator will be used to replicate dosimetric effects of the bolus placed on the surface of the patient. Similar research was done using different materials by Teclehaimanot (2014) in which the results were not in the clinically acceptable levels, so with this work we are expecting to reach such clinical levels with deviation less than 5%. Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is widely used in clinical applications in developed countries, for the treatment of malignant and non-malignant diseases. This technique uses multiple radiation beams of non-uniform intensities. The beams are modulated to the required intensity maps for delivering highly conformal doses of radiation to the treatment targets, while sparing the adjacent normal tissue structures. This treatment technique has superior dosimetric advantages over 2-dimensional (2D) and conventional 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3DCRT) treatments. It can potentially benefit the patient in three ways. Firstly, by improving conformity with target dose, it can reduce the probability of in-field recurrence. Secondly, by reducing irradiation of normal tissue, it can minimize the degree of morbidity associated with treatment. Finally, by facilitating escalation of dose, it can improve local control (Cheung, 2006). Compensator based IMRT has a lot of advantages over MLC, many literature reported by Taherkhani (2010), report that the penumbra regions created by MLCs are larger than those generated by cerrobend blocks. Compensators provide more consistent dose, impose no limitations on the dose delivery rate, reduce skin surface doses, and because of the high density of the cerrobend allows improved skin sparing with low production rate of secondary electrons (Gray, 1979; Hine, 1951) reported by Shery (1987). It gives continuous intensity modulation, high spatial resolution, gives room to treat large field size, easy quality assurance (QA), shorter treatment time delivery with some drawbacks which are lack of automation (Chang, 2004), but there are some disadvantages like the therapist having to go to the treatment room to change the compensator in multiple fields and production cost, being labor intensive and time consuming. But now these drawbacks have been fixed in many developed countries by introducing a milling machine which is incorporated with the Treatment Planning System (TPS), and an automated compensator-IMRT technique (Javedan et al. 2008). Other main advantage of using cerrobend in this research are: its low melting point of 1580F (700C) which makes it easy to be recycled. It is readily available, inexpensive, high density (9.8g/cm3) and is used as shielding blocks in EBRT where doses are reduced by 95% or 99% of their initial value. As a material for compensation with high energy photons, cerrobend provides several advantages over tissue equivalent material (Shery, 1987). In the past, Cerrobend had not been considered as an excellent compensator material despite its high density. Recently Chang et al (2004) found that there are cerrobend filling techniques that produce smooth and accurate compensators with consistent density. Solidified Cerrobend in the compensator mold becomes one of the top choices of compensator material. And it can be easily shaped to the intended form with uniform density using the technique described by (Chang, 2004). Chang et al (2004) showed that compensator-IMRT technique has several benefits for delivering continuous intensity modulation and have shown that the finer resolution compensator-IMRT technique can also produce dosimetry that is closer to the ideal IMRT treatment (without any delivery limitation) compared with the segmental MLC IMRT technique. From this work the patients treated at the National Centre of Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine will benefit from all the advantages of IMRT techniques mentioned above. Consequently patients will also get a better and inexpensive treatment option.

Articles Of Confederation 4 :: essays research papers

After the Revolutionary War, the United States government was in a state of frenzied disillusion. In an attempt to solve the problem of a lack of a functioning government, the Articles of Confederation were formed. Often times called the “Articles of Confusion';, the Articles of Confederation paved the way to our modern system of government. Out of the unreliable and unstable Articles, the Constitution was formed. Though the Articles instilled a seemingly well functioning governmental establishment, the Articles were far from a flawless governing mechanism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the early days of the new British-free America there was a great fear of the new system of government being of the same mold of their former, a monarchy, or even a dictatorship. There was one group of revolutionaries that supported a monarchy being formed. This faction was a section of the Continental Army called the Society of the Cincinnati. They urged the rise of George Washington, a veteran colonial general, as the country’s new king, but Washington refused. In an effort to subside the uproar of the common folk, and to prevent eventual isolation of sovereignty of national affairs unto one person, the Articles granted each state exclusive governing powers over it’s own political matters. By doing this, the Articles prevented the new-formed states from revolting against their own government, and they also gave the states absolute control over their own local and regional matters and political conflicts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In an effort to create a greater sense of unity and national pride in the States, the Articles forced most states with western land claims to forfeit their claims to the federal government, so that the smaller, less populated states would join the union . This did not make any of the states with western territorial expansion content. They felt that the government was starting to take too much authoritative control. With this in mind, the representatives in congress made the promise that when specified parcels of the lands had a population of sixty thousand or more, they would be eligible for statehood. The requirements that were used for birth into the union are the same that are used today. This helped to suffice the desire to extinguish the current government, and contributed to a greater feeling of pride and unification amongst the states.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A piece of the Articles that was very popular with most of the public was the inability of the government, or congress, to enforce taxes on the general public, or individual states.

The Evolution of Cell Phones :: Expository Essays Research Papers

The Evolution of Cell Phones The cellular telephone, as many other current technological products, started off in the military and eventually made its way to the common consumer as a result of the high demands for such communications technologies. The concept for cellular technology was often thought to be limited to science fiction or futuristic communities. Well the future is now, and computerized technology with the help of transmitters and satellites brings nearly unlimited contact to anyone in the world. The transition of the cell phone from thought to reality was made possible by military technologies and a stress towards communications advancement. Cellular technology evolved from its early development to commercial use sometime in the late seventies as the first cell phones were expensive, appeared bulky, and was fairly inconvenient and inefficient. Currently, cell phones have become efficient, useful, and relatively inexpensive. Into the future, cell phones can only become smaller, more efficient, and g lobally renowned. Cellular phones are widely used and accepted into modern culture as one of the most popular forms of media communication. Cellular technology was actually originated in the military two years after the end of the Second World War, in 1947 (about.com). Despite many who believe that the cell phone is a relatively new product on the market, the first usage of any cellular component was very large and strictly for the use and development of the United States military. Actually, the cell phone derives from a two-way radio that uses a mobile phone type of communication of signals. Basically, the first cell phones were simply glorified mobile phones, in essence, that is what all cell phones are. The system uses many stations to divide an area into many cells. As a user moves from cell to cell, calls are transferred from base to base. Around 1968, the Federal Communications Commission, that had haltered the development of cellular broadcasts, now freed up necessary airwaves to allocate the usage of the first cell towers that acted as base stations for phone calls (about.com). This was certainly a start, but the se towers only broadcasted a couple miles in radius and there was still no device comparable to today’s cellular technology. The seventies saw the first working cellular phone components to reach the common market, although bulky, expensive, and inefficient. At a time when disco was lying in its death bed and spandex became popular as a wave of workout videos and aerobics struck the land like a pestilent plague, the demand curve met the supply curve for the commercial development of cellular technology.

John Paul Stevens: Biography :: essays research papers

John Paul Stevens: Biography John Paul Stevens, the 101st Justice to serve on the supreme court of the United States, and the first appointed by President Gerald R. Ford. John Paul Stevens became a member of the high court in December of 1975. Stevens, a middle aged man, with a reputation as a sharp-minded, hardworking lawyer, and first rate judge was given the highest evaluation from the American Bar Association committee that examined his record.  ³A superb judicial craftsman ² and a Judge ¹s judge, ² are two of the praises that Stevens has received from the United States Court of Appeals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stevens was voted into the supreme court with a vote of 98-0. In that time, Stevens was considered by the press, to be a moderate or moderate conservative in his legal thinking, and would take sides with other justices Powell, Stewart, and White. John Paul was born on Apr. 20, 1920. Stevens, the youngest out of 4 sons, Stevens was also considered to be the smartest of the 4 . At the age of six, his brother Ernest Stevens noted to a New York Post reporter,  ³I guess we always knew he was going to make something of himself. He was always awfully smart....When John was six, he could play better bridge then most adults today> ²   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stevens attended the University of Chicago High School, and then later went to the University its self. In 1941, he left the University with a Phi Betta Kappa key, and a B.A. degree. He joined the navy, after the U.S entered World War 2. Stevens was stationed in Washington D.C, as a intelligence officer on the staff of admiral Chester W. Nimitz. He worked with a group assigned to break Japanese codes. for doing this, he was awarded the Bronze Star. After he returned to Chicago, (at the end of the war) he enrolled himself into Northwestern University School of Law to earn his J.D. degree, where he graduated first in his class. Not long after that, he was admitted into the Order of the Coif and the Phi Delta Phi law society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  From 1947 to 48, Stevens spent the year as a clerk to supreme court justice Wiley Rutledge. After that, he joined his first law firm, Poppenhausen, Johnston, Thompson & Raymond. A Chicago based firm, that he was inducted to as an Associate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This was in 1948. With expert guidance from a Senior in the firm,

College Degree Essay

When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one person to dissolve the bands which has connected him to a low paying career with little hope for advancement, and to assume that the powers that be will not offer him the promotions and recognition that he feels he deserves to which the laws of nature and natures God entitles him, a decent respect to the hope he has for his future requires that he should declare the steps which he will take to achieve the goals which he has set for himself.. I have many goals which I hope to achieve through the attainment of my degrees. For the purpose of this recourse I will delve into three of them. The first goal I have is to attain a higher paying job. The second goal that I have is to work my way into a position of leadership. Finally, neither my father, mother nor brother has gone to college therefore it is my desire to be the first of our family to attain a degree. In the job market today high paying jobs are at a premium. I believe I heard a statistic once that said the average income for a single income home is around fifty-thousand dollars. I have lived in this income bracket and know how difficult it can be to maintain a household on that income. With a house payment and two car payments and everything else that goes into maintaining a home that can quickly drain a families finances. I recently took a higher paying job, in the upper sixties and just that â€Å"small† increase in salary has done wonders for my families cash flow. I hope to attain a position which pays in the nineties to low one-hundreds and beyond. Most jobs which pay high salary require as a requisite that the person in that position has a high level of education. Typically, the higher the level of education the higher the level of pay. I have always had many leadership qualities and I enjoy working with others to help them succeed. Leadership offers a unique opportunity to guide others and help them along their paths of success. I do not measure my personal success on how high of a leadership position that I can attain but rather the number of people that I can help to achieve the goals which they have set for themselves. Whether it be helping others increase knowledge or accomplish goals or just help them along their journey, I know that from a position of leadership I can help others in this way. That is why I wish to be a leader. Many positions of leadership require that you have degrees to go with your experience, so that is how I am hoping that a college degree will help me. Finally, I have a personal goal of being the first in my family to earn a college degree. Being a parent I know now that the old adage is true, parents always want their kids to do better in life than they have done. I know this is true of my parents. They have always hoped that I would do better than them and have always encouraged and supported me along that path. When I look back upon my college career it will be with a sense of pride knowing that this is something that my parents wanted for me just as much as I have desired it. I also know that my parents have a great hope and expectation that I provide a good life for their grandson and while money and recognition are not everything they certainly take some of the burden of raising a child off of you. In summation, all of my goals of earning degrees revolve around my son. When my son was born I immediately knew that I had to return to school. I had been floundering for too long in lower paying positions with little hope for advancement. My father provided a stable home as I was growing up, we never had to worry about money or food. My hope is that I will provide that and more for my family. By attaining a college degree I put my self into a much better position to attain a position which pays higher salaries. Additionally, it will allow me to help others by being in a position of leadership. Finally, the pride that I will have in myself and the pride that I know my parents and family will have in me will make the whole journey that much sweeter.

Developmentally appropriate practice Essay

In your own words, excuse what the term get under unrivaleds skinmentally appropriate send means to you. Developmentally appropriate suffice is centered on the understanding of childrens social and culture backgrounds, as it pull up stakes allow you to gain the knowledge of how to uphold children as they develop and use up. Describe at least cardinal personal connections you throw away with the DAP skill you discovered on the NAEYC land site. The two personal connections I made with the DAP skill I discovered on the NAEYC site would be The 10 legal precept strategies, due to the fact that they are effectual methods for teachers, but at the same time efficient enough for parents, as Im trustworthy we use them a good manage with our own children. A nonher connection would be DPA with relation to the DAP with Preschoolers, Ages 3-5. It stated that children are satis grammatical constituenty to learn and absorb more when they overindulge safe and comfortable in th ither learning environment.This I really presuppose that applies not only to kids, but as well as adults. Every mavin performs better when they are not show or unaware. It is important when working with children to interact with them while they accept, I know checker that on that point is al shipway a learning opportunity while croping. It might be cooking in the kitchen with the kids, while shaming to eat, or drink tea. I remember, not to long a observing galore(postnominal) of my student sitting at a play table eating pretend snacks that they made along with drinks, I asked the kids what they made, which allowed me to cast if they knew what their snack was that they made. Summarize three briny affaires you learned from exploring the site. How testament they impact your move in early childhood precept? The first thing that sunk in my head knowing what is normal at each age and stage of study, which is life-or-death.The coterminous is that it is key to build a birt h with parents of children, so that you ordain have an intellect of their goals for their child along with their expectations. We must make an effort to get to know the childrens families and learn about the values, expectations, and component parts that shape their lives at home and in their communities. This background information helps us provide meaningful, relevant, and respectful learning experiences for each child and family (http//www.naeyc.org/DAP). The last thing I obtained from exploring the site is the key factor that will allow families to maintain interestingness in their childs developmentaland educational journey. Meaning teacher-parent communication is crucial factor.Give a rendering of wherefore play is an important part of a developmentally appropriate curriculum. Be sure to support your statements with at least one scholarly source. Give an explanation of how play can help to support a childs sensual, cognitive, and affective development. I would say that play is important factor in a early childhood, because it allows children to deal with their emotions and behaviors as well as the emotions of their friends and classmates. Thiis could embroil controlling feelings, how to follow limits and expectations, learning how to socialize, how to develop friendship by sharing, children as well learn language by engaging in conversations. Play allow children to build developmental skills such as very well and common motor skills, logic/ reasoning skills, and tiny thinking skills. Play allows many opportunities for lessons to be learned.Children learn through play using cognitive, physical, and affective development. Playing diametrical juicys and activities is an effective method for learning and it also demonstrates cognitive learning where the child connects with and identifies while playing. tangible skills allows the child to maintain balance, along with accessing there fine and gross motor skills, which will help them become mobi le. Affective development is key when referring to children learning through play, because it highlights social needs, physical, and language development (Hao, Y., 2000). An example of one play-based activity that demonstrates to parents how play supports their childs development.For instance, you could explain how playing a game of hopscotch can help a child with their gross motor skills (physical development) and counting (cognitive development). gratify make sure that your play-based activity is an airplane pilot judgement or that if you use an idea from an outside source it is properly formatted jibe to APA as outlined in the Ashford compose Center. Also, this should be a brief description of an activity. It is not a lesson plan.A play based activity that could support a child development could be havinga water table set up, with different rubber fishes. The plan would be to revert the children play fishing pole to separate out and make fish. The cognitive part would be to identify what color fish and how many fish they caught. They would be using physical development by applying there fine motor skills, because they would be trying to charge the fishing poles in such ways to catch a fish. It will also allow them to interact and observed the children that do catch fish, hoping that the next student will follow in order to catch a fish.ReferenceHao, Y. (2000). Relationship surrounded by Teachers Use of Reflection and Other Selected Variables and Preschool Teachers appointment in Developmentally Appropriate Practice.